What Is the French Verb Conjugation for Attirer

In French,  attirer  is a verb that means to attract. Its an interesting correlation to attire as in clothing  because we often dress in order to be attractive. That makes it easy to remember, yet, the noun for attire is  la tenue.   Conjugating the French Verb   Attirer A verb conjugation is necessary to correctly use the equivalent of attracted or attracting in French. Its a bit more complex than in English because the endings change with both the subject pronoun and the tense of the sentence. Attirer  is a  regular -ER verb  and that makes the verb conjugation easier. This is because you can learn these forms then use the same endings for similar verbs such as  attacher  (to attach) or  allumer  (to light). When using the chart, pair the subject pronoun -- the  j, tu, nous, etc. -- with the present, future, or imperfect past tense form of the verb. For instance,  I attract is jattire and we will attract is nous attirerons. Subject Present Future Imperfect j attire attirerai attirais tu attires attireras attirais il attire attirera attirait nous attirons attirerons attirions vous attirez attirerez attiriez ils attirent attireront attiraient The Present Participle of  Attirer To change  attirer  to the  present participle, change the -er  to -ant. This gives you  attirant. It is a verb and, when needed, can also be an adjective, gerund, or noun. The Past Participle of  Attirer Rather than use the imperfect past tense, you can opt for the more common  passà © composà ©Ã‚  to express attracted. To do this, you will need to conjugate the  auxiliary verb  avoir, then use the  past participle  of attirà ©. As an example, to say we attracted in French, you will use nous avons attirà ©. Similarly, I attracted is jai attirà ©. The  avons  and  ai  are the past tense conjugates of  avoir  that are changed by the subject. More Conjugations of  Attirer When youre just learning French, you can concentrate on the present, future, and passà © composà © of  attirer. These final forms are not as essential, but it is good to know what they are and how they are used. The subjunctive implies that the action is subjective or uncertain. The conditional form is for those times when the action is dependent on something else. Its likely that you will only come across the passà © simple and imperfect subjunctive forms in formal French writing. Subject Subjunctive Conditional Pass Simple Imperfect Subjunctive j attire attirerais attirai attirasse tu attires attirerais attiras attirasses il attire attirerait attira attirt nous attirions attirerions attirmes attirassions vous attiriez attireriez attirtes attirassiez ils attirent attireraient attirrent attirassent There may also be times when you will want to use  attirer  in the imperative form. This will be in short and often assertive demands or requests. When using it, you can skip the subject pronoun. For instance, instead of tu attire, use attire. Imperative (tu) attire (nous) attirons (vous) attirez

Moral Question of Hastening the Death of a Terminally Ill...

When deciding the most righteous type of way to appropriately end a life of a love one, many thoughts come through as weather the practice of euthanasia is an ethically correct medical procedure. There are many decisions that must be made regarding how to properly treat a individual who want to end there own life. Controversial views have always been made against those who suggest that terminally ill or incurably suffering people should be allowed to ask for and receive help to die if they so wish. The same set of arguments in opposition toward euthanasia is, that life is sacred and by legalizing physician assisted suicide would lead to abuses by the medical field. A fundamental question concerning hastening the death of a terminally ill patient are, evaluating if this act is a virtue of kindness prompted by a sense of mercy and respect for an individuals wishes? If this is not a act of a moral virtue thought then, it is an act of murder and a violation of the Hippocratic Oath. Some patients who decide that they wish to commit suicide are unable or unwilling to accomplish the act without assistance from their physician. Physician-assisted suicide helps them to die under conditions, and at the time, that they choose. PAS is currently legal only in Oregon, Washington, and Montana. In other states, terminally ill individuals who want to die must continue living until their body eventually collapses or until a family member or friend commits a criminal act by helping them toShow MoreRelatedThe Debate Over Physician Assisted Suicide951 Words   |  4 Pagesof a loved one and murder? Is there a moral dissimilarity between letting someone die under your care and killing them? Assuming that PAS suicide is legal under certain circumstances, how stringent need be these circumstances? The patient must be terminally ill to qualify for voluntary physician-assisted suicide, but in the eyes of the non-terminal patients with no physical means to end their life, the ending of their pain through PAS may be worth their death; at what point is the medical staff disregardingRead MoreThe Legalization of Physician-Assisted Suicide Essay2393 Words   |  10 Pagesphysicians in the suicides of terminally ill patients is increasing. Much of the controversy surrounding physician-assisted suicide however focuses on the debate over whether the practice should be legalized. A woman suffering from cancer became the first person known to die under the law of physician-assisted suicide in March of 1998. In 1994, voters in Oregon approved a referendum called the Death with Dignity Act, which was enacted in 1997. This law allows patients who have been given six monthsRead MoreEuthanasia And Assisted Suicide : A Patient s Choice1742 Words   |  7 Pages Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide: A patient s choice in their type of death. When a patient is terminally ill or is experiencing extreme pain, often Euthanasia or Assisted Suicide can both be plausible options to end any suffering. Euthanasia is currently legalized in seven countries and parts of the United States (New Health Guide). This number is not likely to increase soon because of the high controversy, which is due to the very serious topic of this matter: a person s life. The generalRead MoreEssay on Euthanasia in Nursing731 Words   |  3 Pagesgood and thanatos meaning death. Generally, euthanasia implies the intentional termination of life that is initiated by a person who wishes to commit suicide. However, euthanasia has many meanings and as a result, has several terms that define and differentiate various types of euthanasia. For instance, passive euthanasia is altering a form of support thereby hastening the death of a person, i.e. removing life support or not delivering CPR. Causing the death of a person through a direct actionRead MoreThe Debate Of Physician Assisted Suicide1321 Words   |  6 PagesPhysician assisted suicide as, suicide by a patient facilitated by means (as a drug prescription) or by information (as an indication of a lethal dosage) provided by a physician who is aware of the patient s intent (Webster, 1977). Physician Assisted Suicide Physician assisted suicide was brought to mainstream attention in the 1990’s due to Dr. Kevorkian’s â€Å"suicide machine, who claims to have assisted over 100 suicide deaths of terminally ill patients with Alzheimer’s disease (Dickinson, p. 8)Read MoreIntroduction. Euthanasia Is A Unique Practice Of Ending1546 Words   |  7 PagesGreek - eu, good, and thanatos, meaning death (Russell, 1997). However, some think of euthanasia as merely a mercy killing, while others see it as unjustified murder. Euthanasia is portrayed as a controversial topic that seems to have no grey area, simplified as either black or white. It may seem as though factors such as the conscience right of physicians’ conflicts with the autonomy of patients regarding euthanasia when deciding the fate of a patient. This paper will explore the perspective surroundingRead MoreThe Euthanasia Debate1211 Words   |  5 PagesEuthanasia is defined as the painless killing of a terminally ill p atient by means of lethal injection by a doctor in a controlled medical environment. Similarly, physician assisted suicide (PAS) is when a patient requests a lethal prescription from a doctor or pharmacist to end their life before a fatal disease does. The two are akin to each other and are almost interchangeable in definitions. Being a highly controversial topic, there is a plethora of arguments surrounding PAS, all very emotionallyRead MoreEuthanasi Voluntary Active Euthanasia, Passive Euthanasia And Physician Assisted Suicide1143 Words   |  5 Pageschoice to end a patient s life. This keeps them from going through excruciating pain due to an incurable disease. Some people think euthanasia should be out of the picture while others inquiry the effectiveness of these actions. With effectiveness, euthanasia is classified in three categories. There are three types of euthanasia; voluntary active euthanasia, passive euthanasia and physician assisted suicide. Voluntary euthanasia is actually deliberate intervention meaning by a patient wanting terminationRead MoreEuthanasi An Alternative Mode Of Life Care1769 Words   |  8 PagesStates that affects the terminally ill. It includes physician-assisted suicide, which is legal in five states and the practice of euthanasia which is illegal. (Barone, 2014). Delving deeper into the issue of end of life care reveals that this issue affects far more than the patient that is suffering. It raises the question of whether or not it is acceptable to reject the request of a person based solely on the socio-religious values of protecting life and ignoring the moral responsibility of endingRead MoreEuthanasi Assisted Suicide?1252 Words   |  6 PagesNovember 2014 Euthanasia: Assisted suicide Which is better - suffering, pain, and holding onto life for a period of time or just being laid to rest in peace? Nine out of ten people would pick the latter (Georgia State University) if just asked that question without a scenario, but when given the scenario and thinking about their family they might change their opinion. Euthanasia is related to this because it is the destruction of life, and in today’s society, medications can help with pain and suicide

British Rule In England Free Essays

â€Å"Trade was Britain’s doorway to India. † (Bogard et. al. We will write a custom essay sample on British Rule In England or any similar topic only for you Order Now 4th par. 3rd sentence) The colonization of Asia is often referred to as the Second British Empire; the British East India Company India was successful in annexing the Indian subcontinent (India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Myanmar), an extremely lucrative acquisition as it became a large source of revenue (British East India Company 1st par. 1st sentence). India is a country with a rich culture and a civilization far older than that of the British (Bessant 2nd par. 2nd sentence). Its identity has been forged long before the coming of Western Civilization. However, during the period of the annexation of the subcontinent, India was in a period of regional strife. There were wars being fought among the different governors in the territory. The local leaders were fighting each other as well as the foreign invaders. In â€Å"Did Great Britain Unify India? †, the authors think that when Great Britain first came to India, it was suffering a period of division (2nd par. ). The governors of India tended towards disintegration, leading to outrageous defense expenditures which continued with the conflicts against the British (Birodkar). The British made external changes that led India to desire and achieve national unity (Bogard, et. al. 4th par. ). An example of the unifying external changes introduced was the concept of a universal language. The British required knowledge of the English language to qualify for employment in the government. It was also taught in the universities. But the Indians did not completely accept the foreign language of the colonizers. The regional languages still exist today, and only a small portion of population speaks English. However, even if the Indians still speak in different languages and there is still no universal language in India, Hindi has become the official language. Hindi is taught in the elementary and high school level. English is taught in the college levels, it is the language of the educated in India. (Bogard, et. al. ). The British also introduced western developments. The Empire built railroads, highways and ports across the Indian subcontinent to facilitate trade, built canals for irrigation and created public health measures to prevent diseases. On the flip side, the activities of the British were geared towards acquisition of economic wealth for Britain. (Bogard, et. al). According to Bidokar, â€Å"The policy of ‘Great’ Britain was of a systematic annihilation of Indian handicraft industries by exposing them to the ruinous competition from the cheap machine products coming from UK. † (18th par. 1st sentence) A large bulk of the raw materials produced by India is acquired, at very cheap prices, by the Britain; then, later on, finished products are dumped back to India, resulting to very large profits for Britain (Bidokar18th par. 2nd sentence). This exacerbated the poverty of India (Bidokar18th par. 2nd sentence). Bidokar also believed that: Thus after nearly two centuries of living through the twilight of two ages of the dying feudalism and the deformed nascent newborn Capitalism, we inherited an economy which bore the worst features of both feudalism and colonial capitallsm at the dawn of our independence. (20th paragraph) Bogard et,al, on the other hand, claims that poverty in India is a result of improved health care. The public health measures created by the British led to lower infant mortality rates and population explosion. The caste system is a social system by which the members of society are divided into four groups which are ranked. These four groups are priests and teachers, rulers and warriors, merchants and traders and workers and peasants. In the Indian caste system, a person is born within a caste and has little means of improving social standing, except through reincarnation. The occupation and acquaintances of a person is also governed by his caste. The caste system has already been criticized and attacked by various groups before the coming of the British, among these are Buddhists and Muslims. It was convenient for the British to strengthen the caste system when it first came to India (Bogard, et. al). It gave back the privileges of the priests and teachers which the Muslims had previously taken away. However, the changes in society introduced by the British weaken the caste system (Bogard, et. al). People of different caste started mingling in public transportation. British laws also do not allow a higher punishment for a person of lower caste from that of a higher one for the same offense. The advances in transportation allowed people of lower caste from other regions to pretend to belong in a higher caste in a different region. India is the birth place of Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism. Religion is a vital part of Indian life; it permeates all other aspects of life and culture. Religion’s impact is felt even on political matters. Moreover, it constantly clashed with the western culture introduced by the British. As an example, the Sepoy Rebellion arose because the Buddhist soldiers believed that the British did not respect their religion. Christianity made its debut in India before the British through the Portuguese and Spanish missionaries. Later, Anglican and Protestant missionaries also helped spread Christianity in India. At present, it is the second largest religious minority in India; Islam is the first. Christianity also influenced Hinduism. Ram Mohan Roy, a hindu leader, was inspired by the story of Jesus Christ that he fought against the social abuses inherent in Hinduism. It was through his effort that the suttee was declared illegal. (Bogard, et. al) Another devout Hindu influenced by teachings of Christianity is Mahatma Gandhi. Mahatma Gandhi read the works of many west’s great thinker and the gospel of Christ’s He actions is greatly influenced by his readings, but he never lost his faith in Hinduism or his Indian identity. (Bogard, et. al) The effects goes both ways, Ramakrishna, a Hindu missionary, roamed the United States and England to preach Hinduism. Lamb said: The fact that he had so successfully preached Hinduism in the very lands from which the Christian missionaries came seemed to prove that political subjection need not involve religious subjection. Hindus could be proud at least of the essential truths of their religion. The reaffirmation of Hinduism served as an emotional counterbalance to the damage to Hindu self-respect caused by British political domination. (qtd. Bogard, et. al. ) Religion spilled over Indian literature. The Ramayana and Mahabharata, considered as two of the greatest literature of all time, are familiar epics of the Sanskrit. It is written in verse and orally passed down. In more modern times, Indian literature is represented in the world by the works of Rabindranath Tagore and Allama Iqbal. The more lasting influence of Britain to India is in the field of sports. Cricket, a sport invented by the British, is India’s favorite past time (Bogard, et. al). In fact in the 1993 At present, the ties between India and Great Britain are being kept strong by international trade. India and Britain entered into a partnership in 1993. Britain reported a 69% increase in bilateral trade after the partnership was entered into and several joint ventures have been signed between Indian and British companies. Britain is also the largest market for Indian trade services, this amount to 12% of the total IT service exports. Cited Works Bessant, Annie. â€Å"England and India. † Theosophical Publishing Co. 1921. http://www. theosophical. ca/EnglandIndiaAB. htm. Birodkar, Sudheer. â€Å"The Coming of European Colonialism. † http://www. hindubooks. org/sudheer_birodkar/hindu_history/landbritish. html. â€Å"British East India Company. † Wikipedia. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/British_Empire. â€Å"British Raj. † Wikipedia. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/British_Raj. Bogard, Medina, et. al. â€Å"Did Great Britain Unify India? † May 1, 1997. http://home. snu. edu/~dwilliam/s97/india/. â€Å"Indian Literature. † Wikipedia. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Indian_literature. â€Å"Indo-UK Partnership. † http://www. google. com. ph/search? hl=tlq=indo-british+partnership+initiativemeta=. How to cite British Rule In England, Papers

Data Link Layer free essay sample

Table of Contents Part 1: General review of data link layer2 a)Explain the working principles of the data link layer. 2 b)Is controlled access better than contention for media access control? Discuss. 2 c)Why is error detection important in this layer? What is being measured? 3 d)Identify three significant noises that can cause errors in data communication digital circuits. Briefly explain. 3 Part 2: General review of error correction4 a)Why is cyclical redundancy check (CRC) most popular error checking scheme? 4 b)How is Hamming distance used in error correction? Explain. 4 c)Briefly explain how parity is used to find the location of single-bit errors in the forward error correction method? 5 Part 3: Demonstration of data link protocols5 a)Explain the necessity of data link protocols? 5 b)Asynchronous communication is sometimes called start-stop transmission. Discuss with necessary diagram? 6 c)Explain the Ethernet protocols categories? 6 References8 Part 1: General review of data link layer Explain the working principles of the data link layer. The data link layer sits between the physical layer and the network layer. It is responsible for sending and receiving messages to and from other computers. It is responsible for moving a message from one computer to next computer where the message needs to go. The data link layer performs the main functions and is divided into two sub layers. The first sublayer called logical link control (LLC) sublayer and the second sublayer called media access control (MAC) sublayer. The LLC sublayer software at the sending computer is responsible for transmitting the network layer Protocol Data Unit (PDU) with the data link layer. At the receiving computer the MAC sublayer software takes the data link layer PDU from the LLC sublayer and coverts into a stream of bits and also controls when the physical layer actually transmits the bits over the circuit. The data link layer controls the way messages are sent on the physical media. The data link layer performs various functions depending upon the hardware protocol used in the network and both sender and receiver have to agree on the rules and protocols that govern how they will communicate with each other. The data link layer is concerned with physical addressing, network topology, physical link management, error notification, ordered delivery of frames and flow control (Fitzgerald Dennis 2009). Is controlled access better than contention for media access control? Discuss. There are two fundamental approaches to media access control that are control access and contention. In control access the polling process is used in which the mainframe computer (i. e. server) controls the circuit and determines which clients (i. e. computer or terminal) can access media at what time. Polling is like a classroom situation where the instructor (i. e. server) calls students who have raised their hands to gain access to the media. Contention is altogether opposite to controlled access. In this case the computers wait until a circuit is free which means they have to check whether any computers are transmitting and then only they are allowed to transmit whenever they have data to send. But to determine which is better can be considered based on the largest amount of user data to be transmitted through the network. The contention approach has worked better than controlled access approach for small network where there is low usage, but can be problematic in heavy usage networks. In heavy usage networks where many computers want to transmit at the same time the controlled access approach is better because it prevents collisions and delivers better throughput in such networks. But today’s contention approach is better than controlled access because they have been improved to the point where they are able to deliver significantly better throughput than controlled access and are also competitive because of the hardware cost (Fitzgerald Dennis 2009). Why is error detection important in this layer? What is being measured? The responsibility of the data link layer is sending and receiving messages to and from different computers without errors. The data link layer also accepts streams of bits from the physical layer and organizes them into coherent messages that it passes to the network layer (Fitzgerald Dennis 2009). Error detection is important in this layer because it protects the network from errors. There are human errors and network errors. The network errors are those that occur during transmission of messages from one computer to another computer. During transmission of messages there are two possibilities of network errors that is corrupt data (data that have been changed) and lost data. The data link layer is responsible for the transmission of messages without errors from one computer over one circuit to the next computer where the message needs to go. Even if we know what types of errors can occur, we can recognize the error only if we have a copy of the intended transmission for comparison. But if we don’t have the copy of transmission then detecting errors for machine would be slow, costly and of questionable value (Forouzan 2002). The error detection uses the concept of redundancy which means short group of bits appended to or inserted to each unit of data. The extra bits are redundant to the information (message); they are then discarded as soon as the accuracy of the transmission is determined for detecting errors at the destination computer. Identify three significant noises that can cause errors in data communication digital circuits. Briefly explain. Line noise and distortion can cause data communication errors. Errors can occur during data transmission. Data transmitted both analogue and digital is susceptible to many types of noise and errors. The three significant noises that can cause error in data communication digital circuits are: White noise: white noise also called thermal noise or Gaussian noise. This noise is a relatively continuous type of noise and much like the static you hear on radio between two stations. It will always be present in some degree of transmission media and electronic device and is also dependent on the temperature of the medium. The level of noise increases due to the increased movement of electrons in the medium. The white noise can be removed from the digital signal by passing the signal through a signal regenerator before the noise completely overwhelms the original signal (White 2007). Impulse noise: Impulse noise or also called noise spike is a noncontinuous noise and the most difficult errors to detect since it occurs randomly. Difficulty comes in separating the noise from the signal. Some of the sources of impulse noise are voltage change, lightning flashes during thunderstorms, fluorescent lights and poor connection in circuits. If the impulse noise interferes with the digital signal, often the original digital signal can be recognized and recovered. The way to prevent impulse noise is by shielding or moving cables (White 2007). Cross-talk: Crosstalk is like an unwanted coupling between two different signal paths. The unwanted coupling could be electrical, can also occur between two sets of twisted pair (in phone line) or it can be electromagnetic. Crosstalk during telephone calls can be experience when you hear other conversations in the background. Wet or damp weather can also increase crosstalk. Even though crosstalk is relatively continuous it can be reduced by proper precautions and hardware; that is by increasing the guradbands or move or shielding the wires (White 2007) Part 2: General review of error correction Why is cyclical redundancy check (CRC) most popular error checking scheme? Three common error detection methods are parity checking, longitudinal redundancy checking and polynomial checking (that is particularly checksum and cyclic redundancy checking). Parity checking is one of the oldest and simplest error detection methods. Any single error (switch of one bit 1 or 0) will be detected by parity, but it cannot determine in which bit was in the error. If two bits are switched the parity check will not detect any error. Therefore the probability of detecting an error is only 50 percent. Many networks these days do not use parity checking because of low error detection rate. The most popular polynomial error checking scheme is cyclical redundancy check (CRC) method which adds 8 to 32 check bits to potentially large data packets and yields error detection capability approaching of 100 percent. In CRC a message is treated as one long binary number, CRC performs quite well and the most commonly used CRC codes are CRC-16 (16-bit version), CRC-CCIT (another 16-bit version) and CRC-32(32-bit version). CRC -16 will detect about 99. 99 percent of all burst errors longer than 16 bits and CRC-32 will detect about 99. 99 percent of all burst errors longer than 32 bits (Fitzgerald Dennis 2009; White 2007) How is Hamming distance used in error correction? Explain. The number of bits positions in which two codewords differ is called Hamming distance. The significance of Hamming distance is that if two codewords are Hamming distance d apart then it will require d single bit errors to convert one into the other. The error correcting properties of code depends on tis Hamming distance (Forouzan 2007). To detect d errors we will need a distance d+1 code because with such a code there is no way that d single bit error can change a valid codeword into another valid codeword. So when the receiver sees an invalid codeword it can tell that a transmission error has occurred. Similarly when to correct d errors we will need a distance 2d +1 ode because by doing this the legal codewords are so far apart that even with d changes, the original codeword is still closer than any other codeword so that it can be uniquely determined. Normally a frame consist of m data (that is message) bits and r redundant or check bits. Let the total length be n (i. e. n= m+r). So the n-bit unit will contain data and check bits which are often referred to as an n-b it codeword. Given two possible code word say 10001001 and 10110001 then is it possible to determine how many corresponding bits differ. In this example 3 bits differ. Thus to determine how many bits differ just exclusive OR the two codewords and count the number of 1 bits in the result (Tanenbaum 2003). Briefly explain how parity is used to find the location of single-bit errors in the forward error correction method? Parity bits are used on asynchronous data streams to determine whether the received data has error or not. The transmitter adds the parity bit to the data stream and then the receiver compares this to the status of the received parity bits. If the two states are the same then the receiver assumes that the received data is error free. If in case the two states are different then the receiver assumes that the data was errored. How parity is used to find single- bit errors in forward error correction method can be explained with the Hamming code example. Consider three parity bits P1, P2, and P4 are added to data bits D3, D5, D6, and D7. The parity bits (P1, P2, and P4) are 101 and data bits (D3, D5, D6, and D7) are 1010. In this example Hamming code associates even parity bits with unique combinations of data bits. The parity bit P1 applies to data bits D3, D5 and D7. The parity bit P2 applies to data bits D3, D6 and D7. And parity bit P4 applies to data bits D5, D6 and D7. For this example data bits (D3, D5, D6, D7) are 1010 so P1 must be 1 because there is only a single 1 among D3, D5 and D7 and parity must be even. Similarly P2 must be 0 and P4 must be 1 for even party. Now assume that during transmission data bit D7 is changed from 0 to 1 by line noise. Since data bit D7 is being checked by parity bits P1, P2 and P4, all three parity bits now show odd parity instead of correct even parity. The data bit D7 is the only data bit which is monitored by all three parity bits; therefore when D7 is in error all three parity bits show an incorrect parity. In this way the receiver can determine which bit was in error and reverse its state, thus correcting the error without retransmission (Fitzgerald Dennis 2009; Smillie 1999). Part 3: Demonstration of data link protocols Explain the necessity of data link protocols? The data link protocols are a set of specifications which are used to implement the data link layer. They contain rules that are used for framing, addressing, and error and flow control. Data link layer protocols are divided into two subgroups: asynchronous protocols and synchronous protocols. The asynchronous protocols treat each character in a bit stream independently and synchronous protocols take the whole bit stream and chop it into characters of equal size. Nowadays asynchronous protocols are mostly outdated due to its inherent slowness and so asynchronous transmission is being replaced by higher speed synchronous mechanisms. Protocols governing synchronous transmission can be divided into two classes: character-oriented protocols and bit-oriented protocols. In character- oriented protocols the control information is in the form of code words taken from existing character set of ASCII or EBCDIC. These multibit characters carry whole information about line discipline, flow control and error control. But the bit-oriented protocols can pack more information into shorter frames. Initially the synchronous data link control (SDLC) was the basis for all bit oriented protocols but then in 1979, ISO designed high-level data link control (HDLC) which was based on SDLC and is the basis for all bit oriented protocols in use today. HDLC is designed to support both half-duplex and full-duplex communication over point-to-point and multi point links (Forouzan 2002). Asynchronous communication is sometimes called start-stop transmission. Discuss with necessary diagram? In asynchronous transmission each character is transmitted independently of all other characters. For separation of characters and synchronization, as start bit and a stop bit are put in front and back of each individual character. When no character is being transmitted, the line between transmitter and receiver is in an idle state. pic] Figure 1: Asynchronous transmission Source: Fitzgerald Dennis 2009 As shown in figure 1 the start bit is 0 and stop bit is 1. The recognition of start and stop of each message (called as synchronization) takes place for each individual character since the start bit is the signal which tells the receiver to start sampling all the incoming bits of the character so that data bits can be interpreted into proper characte r structure. The st